Rechargeable batteries for electronics, transportation and grid energy storage commonly suffer from low performance and safety concerns at extreme temperatures. At low temperatures, especially subfreezing temperatures, rechargeable batteries, especially lithium-ion batteries, exhibit very low power performance and low energy due to sluggish electrochemical kinetics and transport processes occurring in the battery cell. At high temperatures, lithium-ion batteries become safety hazards. There is a strong need for robust and safe use of these batteries in transportation and grid energy storage at all potential operating temperatures.
It is further desirable to promote rapid internal heating within battery cells at low ambient temperatures so that the electrochemical and transport processes controlling the battery performance can be greatly improved with rapid internal temperature rise. It is also desirable to be able to detect noticeable changes in voltage or current when a battery begins to operate beyond normal temperatures, well before the battery becomes a safety hazard such as when the battery enters into thermal runaway. Both needs can be addressed by devising a battery with two levels of internal resistance, termed as the dual resistance battery herein.